1 Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika, have emerged as significant public health threats globally (Shragai et al., 2017). These diseases are primarily transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, which are highly efficient vectors due to their close association with human habitats and their ability to thrive in diverse environmental conditions (Jones et al., 2019). The Pacific Region, for instance, has experienced unprecedented outbreaks of these diseases, highlighting the increasing frequency and diversity of mosquito-borne epidemics (Roth et al., 2014). The global spread of these arboviruses has been facilitated by factors such as increased air travel, urbanization (Liu et al., 2020), and climate change, which have expanded the geographic range of these vectors into new areas, including temperate zones (Weaver et al., 2018).

The importance of global collaboration in combating mosquito-borne diseases cannot be overstated (Weaver and Lecuit, 2015). Effective surveillance, data sharing, and coordinated response efforts are crucial to mitigate the impact of these diseases on public health (Rossi et al., 2018). The GeoSentinel surveillance network, for example, has provided valuable insights into the epidemiology of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika among international travelers (Osman and Preet, 2020), contributing to improved pre-travel advice and better preparedness for future outbreaks (Guarner and Hale, 2019). Additionally, understanding the ecological and socio-economic factors that influence the distribution and dynamics of mosquito vectors can guide targeted interventions and research efforts (Fritzell et al., 2018).

This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on global collaboration and data sharing in the context of mosquito-borne diseases. By synthesizing findings from multiple studies, this study identifies key challenges and opportunities for enhancing international cooperation in surveillance, prevention, and control of these diseases; covers various aspects, including the biology and ecology of mosquito vectors, the impact of environmental and socio-economic factors on disease transmission, and the role of global networks in monitoring and responding to outbreaks. This study hopes to highlight the critical need for sustained and coordinated efforts to address the growing threat of mosquito-borne diseases worldwide.

2 The Landscape of Global Research Collaboration

2.1 Historical perspective on international collaboration in mosquito research

International collaboration in mosquito research has a long history, driven by the global nature of mosquito-borne diseases and the need for coordinated efforts to combat them. Early collaborations were often bilateral, involving partnerships between institutions in high-income countries and those in regions heavily affected by mosquito-borne diseases. Over time, these collaborations have expanded to include multilateral networks and consortia. For instance, the ZikaPLAN consortium, funded by the European Commission, exemplifies a modern transnational research effort aimed at addressing the Zika epidemic and building research capacity in Latin America (Franklinos et al., 2019). This consortium not only advanced scientific understanding but also established a robust network for future research on vector-borne diseases (Jones et al., 2019).

2.2 Key international organizations and networks

Several key international organizations and networks play pivotal roles in fostering global collaboration in mosquito research (Fernandes et al., 2018). The World Health Organization (WHO) has been instrumental in coordinating efforts and providing guidelines for mosquito control and disease prevention. Additionally, the European Commission has funded numerous research consortia, such as ZikaPLAN, which have significantly contributed to the global understanding of mosquito-borne diseases. Other notable networks include the REDe network, which offers freely available training resources to enhance global research capacity in vector-borne diseases, and the Zika Brazilian Cohorts Consortium, which facilitates data sharing and joint analyses (Jones et al., 2020).

2.3 Trends in funding and resources for collaborative research

Funding for collaborative research on mosquito-borne diseases has seen significant growth, particularly from international bodies and high-income countries (Rund and Martinez, 2017). The European Commission, for example, has been a major funder of research consortia like ZikaPLAN, which not only addressed immediate research needs but also built long-term research capacity in affected regions. Additionally, there has been an increasing trend in funding for innovative mosquito control technologies, ranging from genetic modifications to environmental interventions (Manguin et al., 2010). This diversified funding landscape has enabled a broader range of research activities and fostered interdisciplinary approaches to tackling mosquito-borne diseases (Fernandes et al., 2018).

2.4 Challenges in building and maintaining collaborative networks

Despite the successes, building and maintaining collaborative networks in mosquito research face several challenges (Brugueras et al., 2020). One significant challenge is the disparity in resources and research capacity between high-income and low- and middle-income countries. This can lead to imbalances in collaboration, where high-income countries dominate the research agenda (Weissenböck et al., 2010). Additionally, logistical issues such as data sharing, intellectual property rights, and differing regulatory environments can hinder effective collaboration. The ZikaPLAN consortium, for instance, had to navigate these challenges to successfully share individual-level data for joint analyses (Fernandes et al., 2018). Furthermore, sustaining funding and interest in long-term research initiatives remains a critical challenge, especially as immediate public health crises subside. In conclusion, while global collaboration in mosquito research has made significant strides, ongoing efforts are needed to address the challenges and ensure equitable and effective partnerships (Smith et al., 2014). The historical perspective, key organizations, funding trends, and challenges outlined here provide a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of global research collaboration in mosquito-borne diseases (Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016).

3 Data Sharing Practices in Mosquito-Borne Disease Research

3.1 Importance of data sharing for disease control and prevention

Data sharing is crucial for the control and prevention of mosquito-borne diseases (MBDs) as it facilitates the rapid dissemination of information, enabling timely responses to outbreaks. Effective data sharing can enhance the understanding of disease dynamics, improve the accuracy of predictive models, and support the development of targeted interventions. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes the importance of stakeholder coordination and information sharing to protect against vector-borne diseases (VBDs). Additionally, the global response to the Zika virus epidemic highlighted the need for united global action and data sharing to prevent future epidemics (Moutinho et al., 2022).

3.2 Current data sharing platforms and initiatives

Several platforms and initiatives have been established to promote data sharing in MBD research (Pezzi et al., 2019). These include global databases and collaborative networks that facilitate the exchange of information among researchers, public health officials, and policymakers. For example, the WHO archives and other databases like PubMed and Google Scholar are commonly used for data sharing and literature searches (Fambirai et al., 2022). Furthermore, research grant organizations and journal publishers play a significant role in promoting data sharing by formulating and implementing policies that encourage the dissemination of research data (Figure 1) (Carney et al., 2022).

Carney et al. (2022) found that targeted outreach campaigns significantly increased the number of mosquito reports in various European countries, particularly in the Netherlands, where reports surged dramatically in a short period. The study highlights the effectiveness of combining citizen science with advanced data modeling to assess and predict the risk of Aedes albopictus mosquito encounters. By integrating data from traditional traps, AI-driven smart traps, and environmental factors, researchers were able to generate dynamic risk maps, as demonstrated for Barcelona, Spain. These maps provide valuable insights for public health interventions by identifying areas with the highest potential for human-mosquito interactions. The study underscores the potential of using citizen science data in conjunction with sophisticated modeling techniques to enhance mosquito surveillance and control efforts.

3.3 Ethical and legal considerations in data sharing

Ethical and legal considerations are paramount in data sharing practices (Brugueras et al., 2020). Researchers must navigate issues such as data ownership, privacy, and consent, which can vary significantly across different regions and institutions. Factors that hamper data sharing include concerns about data misappropriation, lack of compensation, and unfavourable internal policies. To address these challenges, it is essential to establish clear guidelines and policies that protect the rights of data providers while promoting transparency and accessibility. Ethical clearance and adherence to legal norms are critical to ensuring that data sharing practices are both responsible and effective (Fonseca et al., 2019).

3.4 Technological innovations facilitating data sharing

Technological advancements have significantly enhanced the capacity for data sharing in MBD research (Tandina et al., 2018). Innovations such as remote sensing, system dynamics modelling, and bio-control strategies like the use of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes are transforming the landscape of disease control. These technologies enable the collection, analysis, and dissemination of large datasets, providing valuable insights into disease transmission patterns and the effectiveness of control measures. For instance, the use of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes has shown promise in reducing the transmission of diseases like dengue and Zika by interfering with mosquito reproduction and pathogen growth (Agboli et al., 2021). Additionally, the integration of new vector-control tools and strategies is essential to meet public health demands and mitigate the impact of mosquito-borne diseases. By leveraging these technological innovations and addressing ethical and legal considerations, the global research community can enhance data sharing practices, ultimately improving the control and prevention of mosquito-borne diseases (Nebbak et al., 2022).

4 Case Study: Successes and Challenges

4.1 The global malaria elimination campaign

The global malaria elimination campaign has seen significant successes and faced numerous challenges. Collaborative initiatives, such as those in the Ecuador-Peru border region, have demonstrated the effectiveness of joint efforts in reducing malaria transmission. These initiatives often involve joint vector control, case management, and epidemiological data sharing, which have led to substantial reductions in malaria burden and mortality (Roth et al., 2014). However, the campaign is hindered by inadequate internal funding and over-reliance on donor support, which threaten the sustainability of these efforts. Additionally, the International Health Regulations (IHR) framework, while providing a legal structure for disease control, has not been fully leveraged for malaria, indicating a need for more focused guidelines and application. Community participation has also been identified as a critical component, with successful programs often involving locally selected volunteers and strong community engagement (Tsukayama et al., 2020).

4.2 Zika virus outbreak: a case of rapid data sharing and response

The Zika virus outbreak of 2015~2016 highlighted the importance of rapid data sharing and global collaboration in managing mosquito-borne diseases. The outbreak exposed significant gaps in mosquito-borne disease control and underscored the need for a united global response (Buchwald et al., 2020). The WorldWide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN) serves as a model for effective data sharing, having developed robust data governance and curation tools that have influenced global treatment recommendations. Despite challenges such as funders' reluctance to invest in capacity building, WWARN's approach of providing free online tools and collaborative authorship has increased data contributions and improved data quality (Figure 2) (Weetman et al., 2018). This case underscores the necessity of long-term infrastructure investment and new incentive structures to facilitate effective data sharing (Liu et al., 2020).

Weetman et al. (2018) found that the spatial distribution of chikungunya, dengue, yellow fever, and Zika virus infections in Africa shows significant overlap, particularly in central and western regions. This overlap suggests that these regions are at a higher risk of multiple disease outbreaks, potentially complicating public health responses. The study highlights the critical need for integrated surveillance and control strategies that consider the co-occurrence of these diseases, especially in areas where the environmental conditions favor the spread of multiple arboviruses. Moreover, the presence of reported infections in both symptomatic and non-symptomatic individuals underscores the challenge of accurately assessing the true burden of these diseases, emphasizing the importance of enhancing diagnostic and reporting mechanisms across the continent. The findings of this study are crucial for informing targeted interventions and resource allocation to mitigate the impact of these diseases in Africa.

4.3 The role of data sharing in the control of dengue in southeast asia

Data sharing plays a crucial role in the control of dengue in Southeast Asia, where the disease remains a significant public health challenge. Effective surveillance systems are essential for translating data into actionable public health measures. Spatial analysis and epidemiological investigations have been used to understand the distribution and ecological determinants of dengue, guiding public health programs and future research. Collaborative efforts, such as those seen in malaria control, can also be applied to dengue, emphasizing the importance of resource sharing, capacity building, and community involvement. However, challenges such as drug and insecticide resistance, social and cultural factors, and inadequate health infrastructure must be addressed to sustain progress (Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016).

4.4 Lessons learned from the case studies

The case studies of malaria, Zika, and dengue control efforts provide several key lessons (Osman and Preet, 2020). First, cross-border and international collaborations are vital for effective disease control, as seen in the successful malaria elimination efforts in the Ecuador-Peru border region. Second, rapid data sharing and robust data governance, exemplified by WWARN, are essential for managing outbreaks and informing treatment policies. Third, community participation and engagement are critical components of successful disease control programs, as demonstrated in various malaria control initiatives. Finally, addressing challenges such as funding, resistance, and infrastructure requires a comprehensive and integrated approach, involving both local and global stakeholders. These lessons highlight the importance of sustained investment, political support, and innovative strategies in the global fight against mosquito-borne diseases (Bogoch et al., 2016).

5 The Impact of Global Collaboration on Mosquito-Borne Disease Control

5.1 Enhanced surveillance and early warning systems

Global collaboration has significantly improved surveillance and early warning systems for mosquito-borne diseases. Effective surveillance systems are crucial for monitoring disease spread and implementing timely interventions. For instance, integrated vector management (IVM) frameworks emphasize the importance of public awareness, advocacy, and legislation, which can be reinforced through collaboration within the health sector and with other sectors (Jones et al., 2020）. Additionally, spatial analysis techniques have been increasingly used to investigate the distribution and ecological determinants of mosquito-borne infections, supporting public health programs in Europe (Mshinda et al., 2004). These advancements highlight the role of global partnerships in enhancing surveillance capabilities and early warning systems (Bardosh et al., 2017).

5.2 Accelerated research and development of new interventions

Global collaboration has also accelerated the research and development of new interventions for mosquito-borne diseases. Innovative mosquito control technologies, such as invasive transgene cassettes and low-cost housing design alterations, are currently under development to counteract the growing threat of diseases like dengue and chikungunya (Rund and Martinez, 2017). Furthermore, the use of the endosymbiotic Wolbachia in mosquitoes has shown promise in reducing the transmission of diseases by interfering with mosquito reproduction and increasing insecticide susceptibility. These advancements demonstrate the potential of global collaboration in driving the development of novel and effective interventions.

5.3 Improved public health outcomes

The collaborative efforts in mosquito-borne disease control have led to improved public health outcomes. Intersectoral collaboration, a key element of IVM, has been shown to reduce vector densities and disease incidence, although more high-quality studies are needed to measure its full impact (Chan et al., 2020). Additionally, primary prevention measures, as emphasized by the World Health Organization's health emergency and disaster risk management framework, have been effective in reducing health risks associated with vector-borne diseases (Brugueras et al., 2020). These collaborative strategies have contributed to better health outcomes and reduced the burden of mosquito-borne diseases globally.

5.4 Case studies of successful interventions driven by collaboration

Several case studies highlight the success of interventions driven by global collaboration. For example, the implementation of alternative strategies for mosquito-borne arbovirus control, such as those evaluated by the Worldwide Insecticide Resistance Network (WIN), has shown potential in mitigating insecticide resistance and reducing disease transmission (Franklinos et al., 2019). In India, a comprehensive review of mosquito-borne diseases over the past 50 years underscores the importance of effective public health communication and international collaboration in controlling disease spread. These case studies illustrate the positive impact of collaborative efforts on mosquito-borne disease control and the importance of continued global partnerships. By leveraging global collaboration, the fight against mosquito-borne diseases can be more effective, leading to enhanced surveillance, accelerated research, improved public health outcomes, and successful interventions (Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016).

6 Challenges and Barriers to Effective Collaboration and Data Sharing

6.1 Geopolitical and cultural barriers

Geopolitical and cultural barriers significantly hinder global collaboration in research and data sharing for mosquito-borne diseases. Cross-border initiatives, such as those for malaria control, often face challenges due to differing political agendas and cultural practices among neighboring countries. These differences can impede the harmonization of strategies and the sharing of critical epidemiological data (Herdiana et al., 2018). Additionally, the presence of competent mosquito vectors in regions with varying levels of political stability and public health infrastructure further complicates collaborative efforts (Brugueras et al., 2020).

6.2 Data privacy and security concerns

Data privacy and security concerns are paramount in the sharing of health data across borders (Näslund et al., 2021). The sensitivity of health data necessitates stringent privacy protections, which can vary widely between countries. This variability can create legal and ethical challenges in data sharing agreements. For instance, the ZikaPLAN consortium highlighted the importance of secure data sharing protocols to protect individual-level data while enabling collaborative research. Ensuring compliance with diverse data protection regulations remains a significant barrier to effective data sharing (Achee et al., 2019).

6.3 Funding and resource allocation disparities

Disparities in funding and resource allocation are critical barriers to effective collaboration. Many collaborative initiatives, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, rely heavily on donor funding, which can be inconsistent and insufficient. This reliance on external funding sources can lead to sustainability issues and hinder long-term planning and implementation of vector control programs. Furthermore, the allocation of resources often does not match the scale of the problem, leading to gaps in research and control efforts (Wang et al., 2021).

6.4 Variability in research capacity and infrastructure

The variability in research capacity and infrastructure across different regions poses a significant challenge to global collaboration (Mshinda et al., 2004). High-income countries often have advanced research facilities and trained personnel, while low- and middle-income countries may lack the necessary infrastructure and expertise. This disparity can lead to imbalances in collaborative efforts, where certain regions are unable to contribute equally to research and data sharing initiatives. The need for capacity building and infrastructure development is critical to address these imbalances and enhance global research efforts. In conclusion, addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes harmonizing policies, ensuring data security, equitable funding, and building research capacity across all regions involved in the fight against mosquito-borne diseases (Fournet et al., 2018).

7 Future Directions in Global Collaboration and Data Sharing

7.1 Strengthening international partnerships and networks

Strengthening international partnerships and networks is crucial for addressing mosquito-borne diseases effectively. The ZikaPLAN research consortium exemplifies the benefits of such collaborations. Funded by the European Commission, ZikaPLAN brought together institutions from high-income and low- and middle-income countries to address knowledge gaps related to the Zika epidemic. This consortium not only advanced the understanding of Zika virus transmission and its clinical impacts but also established a robust Latin American-European research network for emerging vector-borne diseases. Such partnerships should be expanded to include more diverse stakeholders and regions, fostering a global network that can respond swiftly to emerging threats (Weissenböck et al., 2010).

7.2 Enhancing data sharing protocols and standards

Enhancing data sharing protocols and standards is essential for maximizing the utility of collected data. The ZikaPLAN initiative demonstrated the effectiveness of sharing individual-level data for joint analyses, which facilitated a comprehensive understanding of the Zika virus. To replicate this success, global health organizations should develop standardized data sharing protocols that ensure data quality, privacy, and interoperability. This will enable researchers worldwide to access and utilize data more efficiently, leading to more robust and timely insights into mosquito-borne diseases.

7.3 Building capacity in low- and middle-income countries

Building capacity in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is vital for sustainable mosquito-borne disease management. The economic burden of these diseases in LMICs is substantial, amounting to an estimated US $12 billion per year. To mitigate this burden, it is essential to enhance local research and healthcare capabilities. Initiatives like the ZikaPLAN consortium, which aimed to build research capacity in Latin America, provide a model for such efforts. Training programs, infrastructure development, and resource allocation should be prioritized to empower LMICs to conduct independent research and implement effective disease control measures (Colón-González et al., 2021).

7.4 Leveraging emerging technologies for improved collaboration

Leveraging emerging technologies can significantly enhance global collaboration in mosquito-borne disease research. Technologies such as decentralized evaluation platforms for diagnostic assays, as developed by the ZikaPLAN consortium, can facilitate more efficient and widespread testing. Additionally, digital tools for data collection, analysis, and sharing can streamline research processes and improve the accuracy of findings. By integrating these technologies into global health initiatives, researchers can collaborate more effectively, share real-time data, and develop innovative solutions to combat mosquito-borne diseases. In conclusion, future directions in global collaboration and data sharing for mosquito-borne diseases should focus on strengthening international partnerships, enhancing data sharing protocols, building capacity in LMICs, and leveraging emerging technologies. These strategies will enable a more coordinated and effective global response to the challenges posed by mosquito-borne diseases (Wang et al., 2021).

8 Concluding Remarks

This study highlights the significant impact of mosquito-borne diseases on global health, emphasizing the need for comprehensive research and innovative control strategies. Key findings indicate that climate change, socioeconomic factors, and urbanization are critical drivers of disease transmission. This study also underscores the importance of intersectoral collaboration and effective surveillance systems in managing these diseases. Novel control strategies, including genetic modifications and environmental management, show promise in reducing mosquito populations and disease transmission.

Sustained global collaboration is imperative for the effective control and prevention of mosquito-borne diseases. The interconnected nature of these diseases, influenced by global travel, trade, and climate change, necessitates a coordinated international response. Collaborative efforts should focus on sharing data, resources, and best practices across borders. Intersectoral collaboration, involving public health, environmental, and socio-economic sectors, is crucial for developing and implementing integrated vector management strategies. Additionally, global partnerships can facilitate the development and dissemination of innovative control technologies and surveillance systems.

The future of research and data sharing in the field of mosquito-borne diseases hinges on the continued commitment to global collaboration and innovation. Advancements in remote sensing, system dynamics modeling, and genetic engineering hold promise for more effective disease control and prevention. However, addressing the challenges posed by climate change, urbanization, and socio-economic disparities requires a holistic approach that integrates scientific research with policy and community engagement. By fostering a culture of open data sharing and collaborative research, the global community can better anticipate and respond to emerging threats, ultimately reducing the burden of mosquito-borne diseases worldwide.

Acknowledgments

Author is deeply grateful to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their insightful feedback on the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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